In this work, the core size estimation technique of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) using the static magnetization curve obtained from a high-Tc SQUID magnetometer and a metaheuristic inversion technique based on the Particle Swarm Optimizer (PSO) algorithm is presented. The high-Tc SQUID magnetometer is constructed from a high-Tc SQUID sensor coupled by a flux transformer to sense the modulated magnetization signal from a sample. The magnetization signal is modulated by the lateral vibration of the sample on top of a planar differential detection coil of the flux transformer. A pair of primary and excitation coils are utilized to apply an excitation field parallel to the sensitive axis of the detection coil. Using the high-Tc SQUID magnetometer, the magnetization curve of a commercial MNP sample (Resovist) was measured in a logarithmic scale of the excitation field. The PSO inverse technique is then applied to the magnetization curve to construct the magnetic moment distribution. A multimodal normalized log-normal distribution was used in the minimization of the objective function of the PSO inversion technique, and a modification of the PSO search region is proposed to improve the exploration and exploitation of the PSO particles. As a result, a good agreement on the Resovist magnetic core size was obtained between the proposed technique and the non-negative least square (NNLS) inversion technique. The estimated core sizes of 8.0484 nm and 20.3018 nm agreed well with the values reported in the literature using the commercial low-Tc SQUID magnetometer with the SVD and NNLS inversion techniques. Compared to the NNLS inversion technique, the PSO inversion technique had merits in exploring an optimal core size distribution freely without being regularized by a parameter and facilitating an easy peak position determination owing to the smoothness of the constructed distribution. The combination of the high-Tc SQUID magnetometer and the PSO-based reconstruction technique offers a powerful approach for characterizing the MNP core size distribution, and further improvements can be expected from the recent state-of-the-art optimization algorithm to optimize further the computation time and the best objective function value.

Direct-current superconducting quantum interference device (dc-SQUID) based on intrinsic Josephson junction (IJJ) has been fabricated using Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ (Bi-2212) films grown on MgO substrates with surface steps. The superconducting loop parallel to the film surface across the step edge contains two IJJ stacks along the edge. The number of crystallographically stacked IJJ for each SQUIDs were 40, 18 and 3. Those IJJ SQUIDs except for one with 40 stacked IJJs revealed clear periodic modulation of the critical current for the flux quanta through the loops. It is anticipated that phase locking of IJJ has an effect on the modulation depth of the IJJ dc-SQUID.

We are developing an Ultra-Low Field (ULF) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system with a tuned high-Tc (HTS)-rf-SQUID for food inspection. We previously reported that a small hole in a piece of cucumber can be detected. The acquired image was based on filtered back-projection reconstruction using a polarizing permanent magnet. However the resolution of the image was insufficient for food inspection and took a long time to process. The purpose of this study is to improve image quality and shorten processing time. We constructed a specially designed cryostat, which consists of a liquid nitrogen tank for cooling an electromagnetic polarizing coil (135mT) at 77K and a room temperature bore. A Cu pickup coil was installed at the room temperature bore and detected an NMR signal from a sample. The signal was then transferred to an HTS SQUID via an input coil. Following a proper MRI sequence, spatial frequency data at 64×32 points in k-space were obtained. Then, a 2D-FFT (Fast Fourier Transformation) method was applied to reconstruct the 2D-MR images. As a result, we successfully obtained a clear water image of the characters “TUT”, which contains a narrowest width of 0.5mm. The imaging time was also shortened by a factor of 10 when compared to the previous system.

We report on the fabrication of a magnetic metallic contaminant detector using multi-channel high-Tc RF-SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) for large packaged food. For food safety finding small metallic contaminants is an important issue for a food manufacturer. Hence, a detection method for small sized contaminants is required. Some detection systems for food inspection using high-Tc SQUIDs have been reported to date. The system described here is different from the previous systems in its permitted size for inspection, being larger at 150mm in height × 300mm in width. For inspection of large sized food packages, improvement of the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is an important issue because the signal intensity is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance between the SQUID sensor and the object. Therefore a digital filter was introduced and its parameters were optimized. As a result, a steel ball as small as 0.5mm in diameter at a stand-off distance of 167mm was successfully detected with more than SNR = 3.3.

In this paper, we propose improved methods of liquid-phase detection of biological targets utilizing magnetic markers and a high-critical-temperature superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID). For liquid-phase detection, the bound and unbound (free) markers are magnetically distinguished by using Brownian relaxation of free markers. Although a signal from the free markers is zero in an ideal case, it exists in a real sample on account of the aggregation and precipitation of free markers. This signal is called a blank signal, and it degrades the sensitivity of target detection. To solve this problem, we propose improved detection methods. First, we introduce a reaction field, Bre, during the binding reaction between the markers and targets. We additionally introduce a dispersion process after magnetization of the bound markers. Using these methods, we can obtain a strong signal from the bound markers without increasing the aggregation of the free markers. Next, we introduce a field-reversal method in the measurement procedure to differentiate the signal from the markers in suspension from that of the precipitated markers. Using this procedure, we can eliminate the signal from the precipitated markers. Then, we detect biotin molecules by using these methods. In an experiment, the biotins were immobilized on the surfaces of large polymer beads with diameters of 3.3 µm. They were detected with streptavidin-conjugated magnetic markers. The minimum detectable molecular number concentration was 1.8×10-19 mol/ml, which indicates the high sensitivity of the proposed method.

Forty years after the first application of Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) [1], [2] for geophysical purposes, they have recently become a valued tool for mineral exploration. One of the most common applications is time domain (or transient) electromagnetics (TEM), an active method, where the inductive response from the ground to a changing current (mostly rectangular) in a loop on the surface is measured. After the current in the transmitter coil is switched, eddy currents are excited in the ground, which decay in a manner dependent on the conductivity of the underlying geologic structure. The resulting secondary magnetic field at the surface is measured during the off-time by a receiver coil (induced voltage) or by a magnetometer (e.g. SQUID or fluxgate). The recorded transient signal quality is improved by stacking positive and negative decays. Alternatively, the TEM results can be inverted and give the electric conductivity of the ground over depth. Since SQUIDs measure the magnetic field with high sensitivity and a constant frequency transfer function, they show a superior performance compared to conventional induction coils, especially in the presence of strong conductors. As the primary field, and especially its slew rate, are quite large, SQUID systems need to have a large slew rate and dynamic range. Any flux jump would make the use of standard stacking algorithms impossible. IPHT and Supracon are developing and producing SQUID systems based on low temperature superconductors (LTS, in our case niobium), which are now state-of-the-art. Due to the large demand, we are additionally supplying systems with high temperature superconductors (HTS, in our case YBCO). While the low temperature SQUID systems have a better performance (noise and slew rate), the high temperature SQUID systems are easier to handle in the field. The superior performance of SQUIDs compared to induction coils is the most important factor for the detection of good conductors at large depth or ore bodies underneath conductive overburden.

We report the fabrication of magnetic metallic contaminant detectors using multiple high-Tc SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) for a lithium-ion battery cathode sheet. Finding ultra-small metallic foreign matter is an important issue for a manufacturer because metallic contaminants carry the risk of an internal short. When contamination occurs, the manufacturer of the product suffers a great loss from recalling the tainted product. Hence, a detection method of small contaminants is required. Preventing such accidents is also an important issue for manufacturers of industrial products. Given the lower detection limit for practical X-ray usage is in the order of 1 mm, a detection system using a SQUID is a more powerful tool for sensitive inspections. We design and set up an eight-channel roll-to-roll high-Tc dc-SQUID inspection system for a lithium ion battery cathode sheet. We report the evaluation results that the detection of a small $arphi $18,-$mu $m steel particle on a lithium-ion battery cathode sheet was successfully done.

We propose an improved design of a neuron circuit, using coupled SQUIDs gates, for a superconducting neural network. An activation function with step-like input vs. output characteristics is desirable for a neuron circuit to solve a combinatorial optimization problem. The proposed neuron circuit is composed of two coupled SQUIDs gates with a cascade connection, in order to obtain such characteristics. The designed neuron circuit is fabricated by a 2.5kA/cm2 Nb/AlOx/Nb process. The operation of a fabricated neuron circuit is experimentally demonstrated. Network performance of a neural network using proposed neuron circuits is also estimated by numerical dynamic simulations.

As sensitive magnetic sensors, magnetometers based on superconducting quantum interference devices can be used for the detection of weak magnetic fields. These signals can be generated by diverse origins, for example, brain electric activity, myocardium electric activity, and nuclear precession of hydrogen protons. In addition, weak current induced in the low-temperature detectors, for example, transition-edge sensors can be detected using SQUIDs. And, change of magnetic flux quantum generated in a superconducting ring can be detected by SQUID, which can be used for realization of mechanical force. Thus, SQUIDs are key elements in precision metrology. In Korea, development of low-temperature SQUIDs based on Nb-Josephson junctions was started in late 1980s, and Nb-based SQUIDs have been used mainly for biomagnetic measurements; magnetocardiography and magnetoencephalography. High-Tc SQUIDs, being developed in mid 1990s, were used for magnetocardiography and nondestructive evaluation. Recently, SQUID-based low-field nuclear magnetic resonance technology is under development. In this paper, we review the past progress and recent activity of SQUID applications in Korea, with focus on biomagnetic measurements.

We outline a number of high temperature superconducting Josephson junction-based devices including superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) developed for a wide range of applications including geophysical exploration, magnetic anomaly detection, terahertz (THz) imaging and microwave communications. All these devices are based on our patented technology for fabricating YBCO step-edge junction on MgO substrates. A key feature to the successful application of devices based on this technology is good stability, long term reliability, low noise and inherent flexibility of locating junctions anywhere on a substrate.

The voltage biased SQUID Bootstrap Circuit (SBC) was recently demonstrated for direct readout of SQUID signals. The SBC combines current- and voltage-feedbacks in one circuit to suppress the preamplifier noise. It offers not only a good noise performance, but also wide tolerance of SQUID parameters. Using SBC gradiometer, the bio-magnetic signals were successfully measured. In this paper, we overview the concept of SBC and its applications.

The three-bit balanced ternary quantum voltage generator was designed and tested. This voltage generator is based on zero-crossing Shapiro steps (ZCSSs) in asymmetric two-junction SQUID. ZCSSs were observed on the current-voltage curves, and maximum and minimum current of ZCSSs were almost same, respectively for the three bits. 27-step quantum voltages from -13Φ0f to +13 Φ0f were observed by combinations of inputs of bit1, bit2 and bit3.

Recent developments of electronic devices containing Josephson junctions (JJ) with high-Tc superconductors (HTS) are reported. In particular, the fabrication process and the properties of superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) with a multilayer structure and ramp-edge-type JJs are described. The JJs were fabricated by recrystallization of an artificially deposited Cu-poor precursory layer. The formation mechanism of the junction barrier is discussed. We have fabricated various types of gradiometers and magnetometers. They have been actually utilized for several application systems, such as a non-destructive evaluation (NDE) system for deep-lying defects in a metallic plate and a reel-to-reel testing system for striated HTS-coated conductors.

Effect of an addition of a cooled step-up transformer to a flux locked loop (FLL) circuit was studied to reduce indirect rf interference to HTS-dc-SQUID. First, we demonstrated that a noise level of an HTS-dc-SQUID system using the FLL circuit with single room-temperature transformer could be easily degraded by radiation of rf electromagnetic wave to cables in the FLL circuit. It is thought that the rf radiation induced rf current in the circuit, and was transmitted to the SQUID to modulate the bias current, resulting in the increase of the noise level. To avoid the degradation due to such indirect rf interference, the cooled set-up transformer was added to the FLL circuit since it was expected that the additional transformer would work as a "step-down" transformer against the induced rf current. It was shown that the noise level of a HTS-SQUID system (SQUITEM system) operated in an electromagnetically unshielded environment could be improved to the same level as that measured in a magnetically shielded room by the additional cooled transformer and appropriate impedance matching.

Although larger scale integration enhances the practicability of superconducting Josephson circuits, several technical problems begin to emerge during its progress. One of the problems is the increase of current through a ground plane (ground current). Excess ground current produces additional magnetic field and reduces operation margins of the circuits, because superconducting Josephson devices are very sensitive to magnetic field. In this paper, we evaluate current distribution in a superconducting ground plane by means of both experiments and numerical calculation. We also verify two methods for suppressing the ground current. One is a slot structure in the ground plane, and the other is alignment of the current-extraction point. Suppression of the ground current is quantitatively evaluated.

Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) are known to be the most sensitive magnetometers, used in a wide range of applications like biomagnetism, geomagnetism, Non Destructive Evaluation (NDE), metrology or fundamental science. For all these applications, the SQUID sensor is used in analog mode and associated with a carefully designed room-temperature control and/or feedback electronics. Nevertheless, the use of SQUID sensors in digital mode is of high interest for several applications due to their quantum accuracy associated to high linearity, and their potentially very high slew rate and dynamic range. The concept and performances of a low-Tc digital magnetometer based on Single-Flux-Quantum (SFQ) logic, fabricated at the FLUXONICS Foundry located at IPHT Jena, Germany, are given after a presentation of the context of development of superconductive digital magnetometers. The sensitivity, limited to one magnetic single flux quantum, and a dynamic range of 76 dB, that corresponds to an upper limit of the magnetic field amplitude higher than 5 µT, have been measured along with overnight stability. The dynamic range of about 2800 magnetic flux quanta Φ0 has been experimentally observed with an external magnetic field. First signatures of magnetic fields have been observed simultaneously with the ones of analog SQUIDs in the low noise environment of the Laboratoire Souterrain a Bas Bruit (LSBB) located in Rustrel, Provence, France.

We present analytical expression for inductance of a superconducting stripline, a strip sandwiched by two superconducting ground planes. In our method, we utilize the analytical formula for a perfect-conducting stripline derived by Chang in 1976. To utilize Chang's formula, we first transform the structure of a superconducting stripline into that of a perfect-conducting stripline by reducing the thicknesses of the superconducting layers. The thickness reduction is "λ coth (t/λ)" for each (upper or lower) side, where λ and t are the field penetration depth and the layer thickness, respectively. Then, we apply Chang's formula to the transformed stripline model. The calculated results are in good agreement with the numerical and experimental results.

High-Tc superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is an ultra-sensitive magnetic sensor. After the discovery of the high-Tc superconducting materials, the performance of the high-Tc SQUID has been improved and stabilized. One strong candidate for application is a detection system of magnetic foreign matters in industrial products. There is a possibility that ultra-small metallic foreign matter has been accidentally mixed with industrial products such as lithium ion batteries. If this happens, the manufacturer of the product suffers a great loss recalling products. The outer dimension of metallic particles less than 100 micron cannot be detected using X-ray imaging, which is commonly used for the inspection. Therefore a highly sensitive system for small foreign matters is required. We developed detection systems based on high-Tc SQUID for industrial products. We could successfully detect small iron particles of less than 50 micron on a belt conveyer. These detection levels were hard to be achieved using conventional X-ray detection or other methods.

Liquid-phase detection of biological targets utilizing magnetic marker and superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometer is shown. In this method, magnetic markers are coupled to the biological targets, and the binding reaction between them is detected by measuring the magnetic signal from the bound markers. Detection can be done in the liquid phase, i.e., we can detect only the bound markers even in the presence of unbound (free) markers. Since the detection principle is based on the different magnetic properties between the free and bound markers, we clarified the Brownian relaxation of the free markers and the Neel relaxation of the bound markers. Usefulness of the present method is demonstrated from the detection of the biological targets, such as biotin-coated polymer beads, IgE and Candida albicans.

We have proposed and successfully demonstrated a two step method for localizing defects on an LSI chip. The first step is the same as a conventional laser-SQUID (L-SQUID) imaging where a SQUID and a laser beam are fixed during LSI chip scanning. The second step is a new L-SQUID imaging where a laser beam is stayed at the point, located in the first step results, during SQUID scanning. In the second step, a SQUID size (Aeff) and the distance between the SQUID and the LSI chip (ΔZ) are key factors limiting spatial resolution. In order to improve the spatial resolution, we have developed a micro-SQUID and the vacuum chamber housing both the micro-SQUID and the LSI chip. The Aeff of the micro-SQUID is a thousand of that of a conventional SQUID. The minimum value of ΔZ was successfully reduced to 25 µm by setting both the micro-SQUID and an LSI chip in the same vacuum chamber. The spatial resolution in the second step was shown to be 53 µm. Demonstration of actual complicated defects localization was succeeded, and this result suggests that the two step localization method is useful for LSI failure analysis.